what is AL KITAB ?

unknownuser

Peace be upon you Mr Humble

what do you mean you used to worship 'the kitab'?

i think the sunnis do.....

I was once sunni D But even after that I worshipped it because I felt it was the only way to find "truth".

This takes nothing away from how superb I find the book to be, but I just dont worship it any longer.

Fahad1

salam.
what are the main arguements of those who believe that al kitab refers to the important writings in the universe and not the 'Koran' .

thanks.

JHamza

Afaghayra Allahi abtaghee hakamanwahuwa allathee anzala ilaykumu alkitaba mufassalanwaallatheena ataynahumu alkitabayaAAlamoona annahu munazzalun min rabbika bialhaqqifala takoonanna mina almumtareena
Say "Shall I seek for judge other than Allah? - when He it is Who hath sent unto you the Book, explained in detail." They know full well, to whom We have given the Book, that it hath been sent down from thy Lord in truth. Never be then of those who doubt.

Waotlu ma oohiya ilaykamin kitabi rabbika la mubaddila likalimatihiwalan tajida min doonihi multahadan And recite (and teach) what has been revealed to thee of the Book of thy Lord none can change His Words, and none wilt thou find as a refuge other than Him.

Wama anzalna AAalayka alkitabailla litubayyina lahumu allathee ikhtalafoo feehiwahudan warahmatan liqawmin yu/minoona
And We sent down the Book to thee for the express purpose, that thou shouldst make clear to them those things in which they differ, and that it should be a guide and a mercy to those who believe.

Al-Kitab is I Believe the Quran..
1)GOD did not send down a book that contains every scripture ever delivered(Torah,Psalms,Gospels and whats contained in the Quran itself)He sent down the Quran to Muhammad.
2)Muhammad only recited whats in the Quran
3)The only book given to Muhammad so that he could make clear or teach from was the Quran.

Fahad1

Al-Kitab is I Believe the Quran..
1)GOD did not send down a book that contains every scripture ever delivered(Torah,Psalms,Gospels and whats contained in the Quran itself)He sent down the Quran to Muhammad.
2)Muhammad only recited whats in the Quran
3)The only book given to Muhammad so that he could make clear or teach from was the Quran.

salam bro JHamza .

thanks for replying .

982 A messenger from God reciting purified pages.
983 in them are established books.

so the books are within the purified pages which the messenger recites . the taurah,injeel etc are not seperate books . thats what i understand .

checkout the lecture at www.iipc.tv .
salam.

JHamza

Al-Kitab is I Believe the Quran..
1)GOD did not send down a book that contains every scripture ever delivered(Torah,Psalms,Gospels and whats contained in the Quran itself)He sent down the Quran to Muhammad.
2)Muhammad only recited whats in the Quran
3)The only book given to Muhammad so that he could make clear or teach from was the Quran.

salam bro JHamza .

thanks for replying .

982 A messenger from God reciting purified pages.
983 in them are established books.

so the books are within the purified pages which the messenger recites . the taurah,injeel etc are not seperate books . thats what i understand .

checkout the lecture at www.iipc.tv .
salam.

Salaam bro.saladin,
Your welcome..yes thats true,I am sorry I didnt mean to imply that the taurah,injeel etc were not quoted or spoken of,Yes they are in the Quran,but I dont think the Quran has them in there entirety..only portians have been quoted or referred to in the Quran..but I could be wrong..this still doesnt negat that the Quran is Al-Kitab,because the Quran is the only book that was revealed to Muhammad.

Peace...

Fahad1

yes thats true,I am sorry I didnt mean to imply that the taurah,injeel etc were not quoted or spoken of,Yes they are in the Quran,but I dont think the Quran has them in there entirety..only portians have been quoted or referred to in the Quran..but I could be wrong..this still doesnt negat that the Quran is Al-Kitab,because the Quran is the only book that was revealed to Muhammad.

salam bro .
the Quran/Reading is one of the attributes/features of the Kitab/Book , just like the Zikr/Reminder and the Furqan/Criterion etc are attributes of the Book .

in the same way ,the Taurah and Injeel are not seperate books , but aspects of the same Book .

the Book was given to all prophets . there was no other book before this book

464 Say "Do you see those that you call on besides God? Show me what they have created on the earth, or do they have a share in the heavens? Bring me a book before this, or any trace of knowledge, if you are truthful."

the Torah and Bible of Jews and Christians are man-made books like the books of Hadith .

unknownuser

Peace all. Option 4. The quran is a metaphorical summary of the universe at the time of the prophet,there are other previous books(bible,torah,bhagvad gita etc..) and there are new books(eg baihullahs book,guru nanaks book,science etc..) and there will be books to come. Revelation is an ongoing process. We just have to be careful to interpret and verify these books as best we can.
Peace all.

L_Hu

Heres my opinon. Read # 1 "The Quran and self-Image" by Daniel Madigan. Also read # 2 "Prophetic word in Early Islam" by William Graham (not to be confused with the Christan pastor). These books have shaped my opinon considerably. The Quran is not the book we hold in are hands today. Whenever are Quran mentions the Quran it is talking about the dynamic process of revaltion that continues and will continue. In other words it is a continuing process. It is not are books that we now call the Quran. The kitab is the natural world. That idea may perplex you and along with the first idea may seem odd and far fected. For the first opinon read # 1. The second is my opinon that is based on my study of the Quran. If you consider it wrong give reasons why and I will answer your objections. The Furqan is alittle confusing. Furqan can mean separtion, salvation, crition, sign. I prefer sign. To me the Furqan is a sign post to the truth. So you may ask were does are writen Quran come into this. Are Quran is a small mass of matrial that may have been far larger (read # 2). Are Quran is a explantion of the furqan. Not the Furqan. For more information read this thread (inparticular 2 and 3 but also 1).

http//free-minds.org/forum/index.php?topic=13083.0

belH

Peace all. Option 4. The quran is a metaphorical summary of the universe at the time of the prophet,there are other previous books(bible,torah,bhagvad gita etc..) and there are new books(eg baihullahs book,guru nanaks book,science etc..) and there will be books to come. Revelation is an ongoing process. We just have to be careful to interpret and verify these books as best we can.
Peace all.

What is your proof from Quran? as we know, God asked believers to believe in Quran, Bible and Torah; and if He wanted to send other books, He would have told us to believe in them as well. !

Muslimtruthrevealed

What is your proof from Quran? as we know, God asked believers to believe in Quran, Bible and Torah; and if He wanted to send other books, He would have told us to believe in them as well. !

Assalaam Alaikum

There are no 'Books' that Allah reveals....its revelation NOT 'physical' books of papers.....

If We had sent unto you a written (message) on parchment / paper, so that they could touch it with their hands, the Unbelievers would have been sure to say. "This is nothing but obvious magic!"

Walaw nazzalna AAalayka kitaban fee qirtasin falamasoohu biaydeehim laqala allatheena kafaroo in hatha illa sihrun mubeenun

Qirtasin/ (Noun, tanween-kesra, indefinite) Book, Paper, What one writes upon;Root word Qartasa
Dictionary of the Holy Quran page 452 (qartasa)

There is no ayah in the Quran that states 'we must believe in Bible and Torah'.....Injeel is NOT Bible and Torah (Hebrew) is NOT Tawrat

The People of The Book / Al Kitab are the 19 Prophets mentioned in Sura Al Anam 683 - 689

These were the men to whom We gave THE BOOK / Al Kitab, and authority, and prophethood. if these (their descendants) reject them, Behold! We shall entrust their charge to a new people who reject them not.

These Prophets were given The Book / Al Kitab, singular, ONE Book

Muhammed,as was given The Book / Al Kitab also....

To you (i.e. Muhammed) We sent The Book / Al Kitaba in truth, confirming WHAT IS BETWEEN YOUR TWO HANDS from Al Kitab

The Quran explains the details of The Book / Al Kitab....

And this Al-Quran / The Reading is not that can be produced from other than Allah, but it is a confirmation, that is between his two hands and the explanation / details of Al-kitab / The Book there is no doubt in it from the Lord of the worlds.

There are 33+ attributes of The Book / Al Kitab 'detailed' in the Quran in the following ayahs

2.185, 5.44, 3.3, 2.105, 11.96, 2.2, 53.4, 2.75, 6.104, 2.99, 85.21, 72.1, 5.15, 39.23, 12.3, 14.25, 3.138, 15.9, 7.145, 21.48, 2.99, 7.62, 3.44, 23.6, 98.2, 45.18, 9.49, 2.145, 10.35

belH

Salam All

Assalaam Alaikum

There are no 'Books' that Allah reveals....its revelation NOT 'physical' books of papers.....

If We had sent unto you a written (message) on parchment / paper, so that they could touch it with their hands, the Unbelievers would have been sure to say. "This is nothing but obvious magic!"

Walaw nazzalna AAalayka kitaban fee qirtasin falamasoohu biaydeehim laqala allatheena kafaroo in hatha illa sihrun mubeenun

Qirtasin/ (Noun, tanween-kesra, indefinite) Book, Paper, What one writes upon;Root word Qartasa
Dictionary of the Holy Quran page 452 (qartasa)

Agree; but please understand that the revelation was written in papers and became Book (Ketab means something that is written).

There is no ayah in the Quran that states 'we must believe in Bible and Torah'.....Injeel is NOT Bible and Torah (Hebrew) is NOT Tawrat

Alif Lam Mim (1) Allah! There is no Allah but Hethe Living, the Self-Subsisting Eternal. (2) It is He Who sent down to thee (step by step), in truth, the Book confirming what went before it; and He sent down the Torah (Of Moses) and the Gospel (of Jesus) (3) Before this as a guide to mankind, and He sent down the Criterion (of judgment between right and wrong). Then those who reject Faith in the Signs of Allah will suffer the severest chastisement and Allah is Exalted in Might, Lord of Retribution. (3-4)

Say "We believe in Allah, and in what has been revealed to us and what was revealed to Abraham, Isma`il, Isaac, Jacob, and the Tribes, and in (the Books) given to Moses, Jesus, and the Prophets, from their Lord; we make no distinction between one and another among them, and to Allah do we bow our will." (84) If anyone desires a religion other than Islam never will it be accepted of him; and in the Hereafter he will be in the ranks of those who have lost. (3-85)

Islam is to believe in the Orginal Book (Torah in Hebrow, Bible in Aramic, and Quran in Arabic).
(the translations are not correct in most of them as you and everybody else know)

The People of The Book / Al Kitab are the 19 Prophets mentioned in Sura Al Anam 683 - 689

Among the People of the Book are some who, if entrusted with a hoard of gold, will pay it back; others, who if entrusted with a single silver coin, will not repay it unless thou constantly stoodest demanding because they, say "There is no call on us with these ignorant ." But they tell a lie against Allah, and they know it. (3-75)

Say "O people of the Book! come to common terms as between us and you that we worship none but Allah; that we associate no partners with Him; that we erect not from among ourselves Lords and patrons other than Allah." If then they turn back, say ye! "Bear witness that we are Submitters." (3-64)

People of the Book are the ones who believe that Bible or Torah or Quran or all of them are the book s of God; but that does not mean they use the Book as true guidence, but most of the time they use the books that are written by their Religous Lords instead.

Peace

unknownuser

Salam All
Agree; but please understand that the revelation was written in papers and became Book (Ketab means something that is written).

Alif Lam Mim (1) Allah! There is no Allah but Hethe Living, the Self-Subsisting Eternal. (2) It is He Who sent down to thee (step by step), in truth, the Book confirming what went before it; and He sent down the Torah (Of Moses) and the Gospel (of Jesus) (3) Before this as a guide to mankind, and He sent down the Criterion (of judgment between right and wrong). Then those who reject Faith in the Signs of Allah will suffer the severest chastisement and Allah is Exalted in Might, Lord of Retribution. (3-4)

Say "We believe in Allah, and in what has been revealed to us and what was revealed to Abraham, Isma`il, Isaac, Jacob, and the Tribes, and in (the Books) given to Moses, Jesus, and the Prophets, from their Lord; we make no distinction between one and another among them, and to Allah do we bow our will." (84) If anyone desires a religion other than Islam never will it be accepted of him; and in the Hereafter he will be in the ranks of those who have lost. (3-85)

Islam is to believe in the Orginal Book (Torah in Hebrow, Bible in Aramic, and Quran in Arabic).
(the translations are not correct in most of them as you and everybody else know)

Among the People of the Book are some who, if entrusted with a hoard of gold, will pay it back; others, who if entrusted with a single silver coin, will not repay it unless thou constantly stoodest demanding because they, say "There is no call on us with these ignorant ." But they tell a lie against Allah, and they know it. (3-75)

Say "O people of the Book! come to common terms as between us and you that we worship none but Allah; that we associate no partners with Him; that we erect not from among ourselves Lords and patrons other than Allah." If then they turn back, say ye! "Bear witness that we are Submitters." (3-64)

People of the Book are the ones who believe that Bible or Torah or Quran or all of them are the book s of God; but that does not mean they use the Book as true guidence, but most of the time they use the books that are written by their Religous Lords instead.

Peace

Salam

Well said Belalhammad! bravo

Perhaps MTR will find benefit in re-reading

IF you read the previous scripture in THEIR ORIGINAL LANGUAGE you would KNOW that the previous scriptures ARE from ALLAH.

Often times there are people who insist on reading the Quran in Arabic and then settle for a mistranslated version of the previous scripture.

Therefore I repeat
You MUST read ALL scripture in the ORIGINAL languages and then you will KNOW that it is revealation.

But the authority on the Subject is ALWAYS ALLAH so, Let's see what is written in the Quran

Previous scripture is REVELATION from ALLAH

33
He has revealed to you the Book with truth, verifying that which is before it, and He revealed the Tavrat and the Injeel aforetime, a guidance for the people, and He sent the Furqan.

543
And how do they make you a judge and they have the Taurat wherein is Allah's judgment? Yet they turn back after that, and these are not the believers.

544
Surely We revealed the Taurat in which was guidance and light; with it the prophets who submitted themselves (to Allah) judged (matters) for those who were Jews, and the masters of Divine knowledge and the doctors, because they were required to guard (part) of the Book of Allah, and they were witnesses thereof; therefore fear not the people and fear Me, and do not take a small price for My communications; and whoever did not judge by what Allah revealed, those are they that are the unbelievers.

545
And We prescribed to them in it that life is for life, and eye for eye, and nose for nose, and ear for ear, and tooth for tooth, and (that there is) reprisal in wounds; but he who foregoes it, it shall be an expiation for him; and whoever did not judge by what Allah revealed, those are they that are the unjust.

546
And We sent after them in their footsteps Isa, son of Marium, verifying what was before him of the Taurat and We gave him the Injeel in which was guidance and light, and verifying what was before it of Taurat and a guidance and an admonition for those who guard (against evil).

547
And the followers of the Injeel should have judged by what Allah revealed in it; and whoever did not judge by what Allah revealed, those are they that are the transgressors.

548
And We have revealed to you the Book with the truth, verifying what is before it of the Book and a guardian over it, therefore judge between them by what Allah has revealed, and do not follow their low desires (to turn away) from the truth that has come to you; for every one of you did We appoint a law and a way, and if Allah had pleased He would have made you (all) a single people, but that He might try you in what He gave you, therefore strive with one another to hasten to virtuous deeds; to Allah is your return, of all (of you), so He will let you know that in which you differed;

YOU follow NO GOOD until you Keep up the Torah and Injeel

568
Say O followers of the Book! you follow no good till you keep up the Taurat and the Injeel and that which is revealed to you from your Lord; and surely that which has been revealed to you from your Lord shall make many of them increase in inordinacy and unbelief; grieve not therefore for the unbelieving people.

The ones who are GUIDED?.BELIEVE in what was revealed BEFORE?THIS is how we know who is guided as said in al baqarah....

24
And who believe in that which has been revealed to you and that which was revealed before you and they are sure of the hereafter.

And this is what is said of those who do NOT believe in previous revelation?..

4136
O you who believe! believe in Allah and His Messenger and the Book which He has revealed to His Messenger and the Book which He revealed before; and whoever disbelieves in Allah and His angels and His messengers and the last day, he indeed strays off into a remote error.

625
The likeness of those who were charged with the Taurat, then they did not observe it, is as the likeness of the ass bearing books, evil is the likeness of the people who reject the communications of Allah; and Allah does not guide the unjust people.

566
And if they had kept up the Taurat and the Injeel and that which was revealed to them from their Lord, they would certainly have eaten from above them and from beneath their feet there is a party of them keeping to the moderate course, and (as for) most of them, evil is that which they do

The common claim is that previous scripture has been lost or altered.

Those who make such claims are also claiming that THEY DISBELIEVE in the Quran when we are TOLD to uphold previous scripture.

I have given several verses as evidence regarding previous scripture. However, there ARE MANY MORE.

Allah clearly states that HE KNOWS BEST what is in the Heavens and the EARTH (that would include knowing that previous scriptures are STILL here for us to UPHOLD as COMMANDED).?

1755
And your Lord best knows those who are in the heavens and the earth; and certainly We have made some of the prophets to excel others, and to Dawood We gave a scripture.

No one can argue that a thing is incorrect or flawed without an intimate knowledge of the thing they are judging.

So if a person has not read the previous scriptures in their original languages, they cannot say that they are not revelation. They are are simply parroting what others have told them.

Salam,
Arnab

Muslimtruthrevealed

Assalaam Alaikum

Unfortunately, many people take the Quran as a philosophy or history book to be critiqued and subjected to interpretation and opinion.

Personally, I accept the Quran as guidance, Allah confirms this point

Withoutdoubt, We revealed to you a BOOK, YOU are mentioned in it, so will you not then understand.

Allah speaks and influences the 'soul

"O (you) soul / nafsu, in (complete) rest and satisfaction / almutmainnatu!

Ya ayyatuha alnnafsu almutmainnatu

Allah states the guidance is NOT reflected in ANY other Book.....

And you did NOT recite before this Book / ma kunta tatloo min qablihi min kitabin YOU did NOT TRANSCRIBE / WRITE it with YOUR right hand / Hands. In that case, indeed, would the talkers of vanities have doubted.

Allah tells where the guidance is contained....

No, here are Signs SELF-EVIDENT IN THE HEARTS OF THOSE ENDOWED WITH KNOWLEDGE. and none but the unjust reject Our Signs.

Muslimtruthrevealed

Assalaam Alaikum @Arnab...

First point, This is NOT 'personal', negative and false characterizations of me and others is NOT required in a intellectual discussion.

(Besides does anyone really care?)

Lets quickly, dispense with your fallacy and belief that the Quran is referring to Torah, which is a Hebrew term and 'Bible', which has its origin in Latin, Greek, or whatever argument is appropriate.

@Arnab...your statement...."33
He has revealed to you the Book with truth, verifying that which is before it, and He revealed the Tavrat and the Injeel aforetime, a guidance for the people, and He sent the Furqan."

This interpretation is WRONG and misleading.....

"verifying that which is before it" is NOT in the Arabic of the ayah

The CORRECT translation and interpretation confirming what is between your two hands / musaddiqan li ma bayna yadayhi;

Musaddiqan (active participle) Some entity is taking the responsibility confirming now

Li is a preposition that indicates an association with human beings and ABSTRACT entities (objects) one cannot physically possess; ?Al-Kitaab fii Ta?allum al-Arabiyya? page 111

Bayna between
yadayhi; YOUR hands

It is He Who sent down to you (step by step), in truth, the Book, confirming what is between your two hands / musaddiqan li ma bayna yadayhi; and He sent down the Law and the Injeel, as a guide to mankind.

@Arnab...your statement..."543
And how do they make you a judge and they have the Taurat wherein is Allah's judgment? Yet they turn back after that, and these are not the believers."

This interpretation is WRONG and misleading.....

"they have the Taurat wherein is Allah's judgment".....Is NOT reflected in the ayah and is DELIBERATELY misleading...

Wa kayfa yuhakkimoonaka waAAindahumu alttawratu feeha hukmu Allahi thumma yatawallawna min baAAdi thalika wama olaika bialmumineena

kayfa means ?How?, Its relevance pertains to a conditional action that has taken place in the past or taking place now
yuhakkimoonaka appoint someone to judge YOU
AAindahumu is a preposition which means WITH THESE WORDS, at this moment, as we speak
feeha means literally INSIDE / IN it
hukmu Allahi = Hukm of Allah

The ayah is NOT referring to a 'Torah' written by the Halakhim centuries ago, during the Jewish Temple period. Nor does Allah's Hukm reside in a 'Torah'

A more appropriate translation would reflect

? And how can they govern you? And At-Tawrat / The Law is in these words / near them, in it is Hukum / government of Allah. Then after that they turn away and they are not with the believers.

And He is Allah. There is no god but He. To Him be praise, at the first and at the last. for Him is the Judgement/ Al Hukm, and to Him shall you (all) be brought back.

Last point....

@Arnab....the references you made in 24 and 4136 are misleading interpretations ....

Both references are referring to Al Kitab. The word 'Qablu' refers to a TIME and PLACE NOT books! (See Rad 133

Thus have We revealed it to be a judgment of authority in Arabic / anzalnahu hukman AAarabiyyan. Wert you to follow their (vain) desires after the knowledge which has reached you, then wouldst you find neither protector nor defender against Allah.

As you can see (above) Allah sent the Hukm in Arabic NOT Hebrew.

We did send Messengers before you, and appointed for them spouses and children. and it was never the part of an Messenger to bring a sign except as Allah permitted (or commanded). For each period is a Book / ajalin kitabun .

The word 'Kitabu' the 'fatha' over the 'ta' denotes that this verb or root NEVER changes. It reflects the 'origin' of the verb.

Every Messenger received Al Kitab in Arabic NOT Hebrew!

Which Allah confirms below....

Allah doth blot out or confirm what He pleaseth. with Him is the Mother of the Book.

Allah maintains the Hukm and Al Kitab, the origin of the guidance sent to ALL Messengers is with Allah in Arabic NOT Hebrew!

@Arnab....For the sake of brevity, there is no need to address your litany of mistranslated references. If you wish we can address any specific references or points you wish to discuss.

And verily, it is in the Mother of the Book, in Our Presence, high (in dignity), full of wisdom.

belH

@Arnab....For the sake of brevity, there is no need to address your litany of mistranslated references. If you wish we can address any specific references or points you wish to discuss.

Peace;
Do you say the Following?

Say "We believe in Allah, and in what has been revealed to us and what was revealed to Abraham, Isma`il, Isaac, Jacob, and the Tribes, and in (the Books) given to Moses, Jesus, and the Prophets, from their Lord; we make no distinction between one and another among them, and to Allah do we bow our will." (84) If anyone desires a religion other than Islam never will it be accepted of him; and in the Hereafter he will be in the ranks of those who have lost. (3-85)

And if you do? Do you act upon what you say?

Peace

unknownuser

Assalaam Alaikum @Arnab...

First point, This is NOT 'personal', negative and false characterizations of me and others is NOT required in a intellectual discussion.

(Besides does anyone really care?)

Please don't take my posts personally MTR and I made no negative or false characterizations of either you or anyone else (please re-read my previous post). My debate is with your understanding not you personally.

Lets quickly, dispense with your fallacy and belief that the Quran is referring to Torah, which is a Hebrew term and 'Bible', which has its origin in Latin, Greek, or whatever argument is appropriate.

First of all you are wrong in assuming that the word Torah is unique to the Arabic dialect. The word Torah has the same meaning in ALL the dialects of the Semitic language and is used in exactly the same way in all the scriptures.

Perhaps it would be of benefit to clarify some of the different terms used

Tanakh The Hebrew Bible in Hebrew and Aramaic. This collection goes by many names The English version is usually called the Old Testament by the Christians, the Greek version is the Septuagint and so on.

The Torah is the first five books of the Tanakh/Old Testament and is also called The Five books of Moses, The books of Moses, The Laws, or the Pentateuch.

The New Testament is the part in the Christian Bible that comes after the Old Testament it includes the Gospels and the Writings of Paul and Revelations.

The word bible is traced back to Greek (and Latin) and has become an acceptable English word that refers to the Old Testament and New Testament in English.

The books I refer to are the Torah, Tanakh and Injeel (Gospels which specifically are Matthew, Mark, Luke and John) and in their original languages. I do not refer to translations.

@Arnab...your statement...."33
He has revealed to you the Book with truth, verifying that which is before it, and He revealed the Tavrat and the Injeel aforetime, a guidance for the people, and He sent the Furqan."

This interpretation is WRONG and misleading.....

"verifying that which is before it" is NOT in the Arabic of the ayah

The CORRECT translation and interpretation confirming what is between your two hands / musaddiqan li ma bayna yadayhi;

Yes I agree that the translation is faulty. Please understand that I posted translations to make a point. No translation is entirely accurate.

It is He Who sent down to you (step by step), in truth, the Book, confirming what is between your two hands / musaddiqan li ma bayna yadayhi; and He sent down the Law and the Injeel, as a guide to mankind.

Yes, this translation I agree is more accurate. However, the fact remains that he sent down the TORAH (same word in ALL the semitic languages) and Injeel. So the "between your hands" translation, is beyond the topic of this discussion, and to be frank not the point.

@Arnab...your statement..."543
And how do they make you a judge and they have the Taurat wherein is Allah's judgment? Yet they turn back after that, and these are not the believers."

This interpretation is WRONG and misleading.....

"they have the Taurat wherein is Allah's judgment".....Is NOT reflected in the ayah and is DELIBERATELY misleading...

Wa kayfa yuhakkimoonaka waAAindahumu alttawratu feeha hukmu Allahi thumma yatawallawna min baAAdi thalika wama olaika bialmumineena

kayfa means ?How?, Its relevance pertains to a conditional action that has taken place in the past or taking place now
yuhakkimoonaka appoint someone to judge YOU
AAindahumu is a preposition which means WITH THESE WORDS, at this moment, as we speak
feeha means literally INSIDE / IN it
hukmu Allahi = Hukm of Allah

The ayah is NOT referring to a 'Torah' written by the Halakhim centuries ago, during the Jewish Temple period. Nor does Allah's Hukm reside in a 'Torah'

A more appropriate translation would reflect

? And how can they govern you? And At-Tawrat / The Law is in these words / near them, in it is Hukum / government of Allah. Then after that they turn away and they are not with the believers.

I understand that you are unsatisfied with the translations. Translations are no substitute for the Arabic I agree. However, you again argued a point that is not the subject of the topic. Even with your change to the translation the fact remains that we have the Torah.

Last point....

@Arnab....the references you made in 24 and 4136 are misleading interpretations ....

Both references are referring to Al Kitab. The word 'Qablu' refers to a TIME and PLACE NOT books! (See Rad 133

Thus have We revealed it to be a judgment of authority in Arabic / anzalnahu hukman AAarabiyyan. Wert you to follow their (vain) desires after the knowledge which has reached you, then wouldst you find neither protector nor defender against Allah.

As you can see (above) Allah sent the Hukm in Arabic NOT Hebrew.

Arabic is a dialect of the semitic language. There is no denying the linguistic ties to its predecessors. And there is no denying the majority of root words that share definitions and usage in the three major dialects of the Semitic language (Hebrew, Aramaic, and Arabic).

The word Arab (ayin-ra-ba) is used to refer to those who lived in the desert area of Arabia even in the Tanakh.
The word Hebrew (ayin-ba-ra) literally means "to cross over/foreigner " and has been used to refer to the Isrealites and the language they spoke.

As a side note I find it interesting that the words are similar, with only a transposition of the ba and ra.

We did send Messengers before you, and appointed for them spouses and children. and it was never the part of an Messenger to bring a sign except as Allah permitted (or commanded). For each period is a Book / ajalin kitabun .

The word 'Kitabu' the 'fatha' over the 'ta' denotes that this verb or root NEVER changes. It reflects the 'origin' of the verb.

Every Messenger received Al Kitab in Arabic NOT Hebrew!

That last sentence is your opinion.

Which Allah confirms below....

Allah doth blot out or confirm what He pleaseth. with Him is the Mother of the Book.

Allah maintains the Hukm and Al Kitab, the origin of the guidance sent to ALL Messengers is with Allah in Arabic NOT Hebrew!

Again, that last sentence in italics is your opinion not a statement from the Quran.

@Arnab....For the sake of brevity, there is no need to address your litany of mistranslated references. If you wish we can address any specific references or points you wish to discuss.

MTR this is an English forum, I merely posted verses to state a point. In the examples of mistranslations you referred to the original point is not lost. For the sake of clarity the point of the post was that the Torah and Injeel are also part of Al Kitab.

Salam,
Arnab

Muslimtruthrevealed

@Arnab...

We are discussing Quran, the language of the Quran....Arabic / Arabbiyya we are NOT discussing Hebrew...nor does Hebrew have anything to do with the Quran, period.

I`rab

The Arabic word I?rb ( &#8206 designates the system of nominal and adjectival suffixes of Classical Arabic. The term is cognate to the word Arab itself. These suffixes are written in fully vocalized Arabic texts, notably the Qur'an, and they are articulated when a text is formally read aloud, but THEY DO NOT SURVIVE IN ANY SPOKEN DIALECT OF ARABIC. Even in formal Arabic, these suffix vowels are not pronounced "in pausa", i.e. when the word occurs at the end of the sentence, in accordance with certain rules of Arabic pronunciation.

@Arnab

But We had not given them Books which they could study, nor sent Messengers to them before you as Warners.

Your missing the point, irrespective of whether you or anyone else has the 'Torah', the Quran is stating "We did NOT give you a Book called Torah"

Denial is NOT a argumentative position. One's desire to appear knowledgeable and 'correct' is NOT a tactic utilized in a civil intellectual debate. In addition, presumption is an assumption veiled in the lack of evidence and truth.

Now again Allah revealed the Hukm to ALL the Messengers in Arabic NOT Hebrew. Thats a Quranic fact NOT my opinion.

Now please address the ayah to suggest anything different from what Allah is indicating....

? That was the reasoning about Us, which We gave to Abraham (to use) against his people. We raise whom We will, degree after degree. for thy Lord is full of wisdom and knowledge.
? We gave him Isaac and Jacob. all (three) guided. and before him, We guided Noah, and among his progeny, David, Solomon, Job, Joseph, Moses, and Aaron. thus do We reward those who do good.
? And Zakariya and John, and Jesus and Elias. all in the ranks of the righteous.
? And Isma'il and Elisha, and Jonas, and Lot. and to all We gave favour above the nations.

@Arnab..seems to be about 19 Prophets/Messengers mentioned.....

These were the men (aforementioned) to whom We gave THE BOOK / AL-KITABA, and authority / AL-HUKM, and prophethood. if these (their descendants) reject them, Behold! We shall entrust their charge to a new people who reject them not.

Thus have We revealed it to be a judgment of authority in Arabic / anzalnahu HUKMan AAarabiyyan. Were you to follow their (vain) desires after the knowledge which has reached you, then wouldst you find neither protector nor defender against Allah.

@Arnab since you claim It was my 'opinion' that suggested that 'Every Messenger received Al Kitab and the Hukm in Arabic NOT Hebrew!'

Please address the ayahs

@Arnab you made another presumptive error and observation......

1339 Allah establishes and confirms / yuthbitu whatever He wills for with Allah is the source of all revelation / ommu al-kitabi.

Yamhoo Allahu ma yashao wayuthbitu waAAindahu ommu al-kitabi

Ummi / Ummu; Root word Umm (noun) Mother, Source, PRINCIPLE, ORIGIN, PROTOTYPE;
Dictionary of the Holy Quran page 32 (Ummun)

@Arnab...Help myself and the audience understand how you came to the conclusion that it was my 'opinion' that suggested

"Allah maintains the Hukm and Al Kitab, the origin of the guidance sent to ALL Messengers is with Allah in Arabic NOT Hebrew!"

When Allah,swt confirms my statement in Sura Ar-Ra`d 1339. (Sura 434 also)

Please address the aforementioned ayahs NOT myself but the ayahs please...

I await your response

unknownuser

@Arnab...

We are discussing Quran, the language of the Quran....Arabic / Arabbiyya we are NOT discussing Hebrew...nor does Hebrew have anything to do with the Quran, period.

This reply will have to be made in several posts in order to present all the information. This is post 1

The Arabic dialect is part of the Semitic Language family. Linguists usually study all dialects of the semitic language family in order to obtain a firm grasp of the language and understand the different ways the words are used in the sacred texts.

Perhaps a word study on the root ayn-ra-ba would be helpful.

Hebrew

From Strong's Hebrew Dictionary and Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew Definitions

Strong's H6148

arab
aw-rab'
A primitive root; to braid, that is, intermix; technically to traffic (as if by barter); also to give or be security (as a kind of exchange) - engage, (inter-) meddle (with), mingle (self), mortgage, occupy, give pledges, be (-come, put in) surety, undertake.
BDB Definition

to pledge, exchange, mortgage, engage, occupy, undertake for, give pledges, be or become surety, take on pledge, give in pledge
1a) (Qal)
1a1) to take on pledge, go surety for
1a2) to give in pledge
1a3) to exchange
1a4) to pledge
1b) (Hithpael)
1b1) to exchange pledges
1b2) to have fellowship with, share
Part of Speech verb
A Related Word by BDB/Strong?s Number a primitive root
Same Word by TWOT Number 1686

Strong's H6149

areb
aw-rabe'
A primitive root (rather identical with H6148 through the idea of close association); to be agreeable - be pleasant (-ing), take pleasure in, be sweet.
BDB Definition

(Qal) to be pleasant, be sweet, be pleasing
1a) (TWOT) sweet, pleasant
Part of Speech verb
A Related Word by BDB/Strong?s Number a primitive root ; to be agreeable
Same Word by TWOT Number 1687a

Strong's H6152

arab arab
ar-ab', ar-awb'
From H6150 in the figuratively sense of sterility; Arab (that is, Arabia), a country East of Palestine - Arabia.
BDB Definition

steppe-dwellers
1a) the people inhabiting the country east and south of Canaan, the nomadic desert Bedouins
1b) Arabians, Arabs
Part of Speech noun proper collective
A Related Word by BDB/Strong?s Number from H6150 in the figurative sense of sterility
Same Word by TWOT Number 1688a, 1688c

Strong's H6154

ereb ereb
ay'-reb, eh'-reb
The second form used in 1Ki_1015 with the article prefixed); from H6148; the web (or transverse threads of cloth); also a mixture, (or mongrel race) - Arabia, mingled people, mixed (multitude), woof.
BDB Definition

woof
1a) as mixed, interwoven
1b) knitted material
mixture, mixed people, mixed company
Part of Speech noun masculine
A Related Word by BDB/Strong?s Number from H6148
Same Word by TWOT Number 1685a, 1685b

Strong's H6155

arab
aw-rawb'
From H6148; a willow (from the use of osiers as wattles) - willow.
BDB Definition

poplar, willow
1a) a tree characterised by dark wood
Part of Speech noun feminine
A Related Word by BDB/Strong?s Number from H6148
Same Word by TWOT Number 1690b

Strong's H6156

areb
From H6149; pleasant - sweet.
BDB Definition

sweet, pleasant
Part of Speech adjective
A Related Word by BDB/Strong?s Number from H6149
Same Word by TWOT Number 1687a

Strong's H6157

arob
aw-robe'
From H6148; a mosquito (from its swarming) - divers sorts or flies, swarm.
BDB Definition

swarm
1a) probable meaning from ?mixture? and ?incessant or involved motion?
Part of Speech noun masculine
A Related Word by BDB/Strong?s Number from H6148
Same Word by TWOT Number 1685c

Also compare

Strong's H6160

arabah
ar-aw-baw'
From H6150 (in the sense of sterility); a desert; especially (with the article prefixed) the (generally) sterile valley of the Jordan and its continuation to the Red Sea - Arabah, champaign, desert, evening, heaven, plain, wilderness. See also H1026.
BDB Definition

desert plain, steppe, desert, wilderness
Part of Speech noun feminine
A Related Word by BDB/Strong?s Number from H6150 (in the sense of sterility)
Same Word by TWOT Number 1688d

Strong's H6161

arubbah
ar-oob-baw'
Feminine passive participle of H6048 in the sense of a bargain or exchange; something given as security, that is, (literally) a token (of safety) or (metaphorically) a bondsman - pledge, surety.
BDB Definition

pledge, token, bond, surety, thing exchanged
Part of Speech noun feminine
A Related Word by BDB/Strong?s Number feminine passive participle of H6048 in the sense of a bargain or exchange
Same Word by TWOT Number 1686a

Strong's H6163

arabiy arbiy
ar-aw-bee', ar-bee'
Patrial from H6152; an Arabian or inhabitant of Arab (that is, Arabia) - Arabian.
BDB Definition
Arabian = see Arabia ?mixed?

an inhabitant of Arabia
1a) steppe-dweller
Part of Speech adjective proper patrial
A Related Word by BDB/Strong?s Number from H6152

Strong's H6164

arbathiy
ar-baw-thee'
Patrial from H1026; an Arbathite or inhabitant of (Beth-) Arabah - Arbathite.
BDB Definition
Arbathite = see Betharabah ?desert house?

an inhabitant of Beth-arabah
Part of Speech adjective patrial
A Related Word by BDB/Strong?s Number from H1026

on to the next post------------>

unknownuser

Part 2

From International Standard Bible Encyclopedia

Arabah
ar?a-ba, a-ra?ba , ha-arabhah, ?the Arabah?) This word indicates in general a barren district, but is specifically applied in whole or in part to the depression of the Jordan valley, extending from Mount Hermon to the Gulf of Akabah. In the King James Version it is transliterated only once (Jos_181 describing the border of Benjamin. Elsewhere it is rendered ?plain.? But in the Revised Version (British and American) it is everywhere transliterated. South of the Dead Sea the name is still retained in Wady el-Arabah. In Deu_11; Deu_28 (the King James Version ?plain?) the southern portion is referred to; in Deu_317; Deu_449; Jos_316; Jos_112; Jos_123 and 2Ki_1425 the name is closely connected with the Dead Sea and the Sea of Chinnereth (Gennesaret). The allusions to the Arabah in Deu_1130; Jos_814; Jos_121; Jos_1818; 2Sa_229; 2Sa_47; 2Ki_254; Jer_394; Jer_527 indicate that the word was generally used in its most extended sense, while in Jos_1116, and Jos_128 it is represented as one of the great natural divisions of the country.
The southern portion, which still retains the name of Arabah, is included in the wilderness of Zin (Num_343). According to the survey of Lord Kitchener and George Armstrong made in 1883, under the auspices of the Palestine Exploration Fund, its length from the head of the Gulf of Akabah to the Dead Sea is 112 miles. The lowest point of the watershed is 45 miles from Akabah, and 660 feet above tide (1,952 above the Dead Sea). The average width of the valley up to this point is about 6 miles, but here a series of low limestone ridges (called Er Risheh) rising 150 feet above the plain runs obliquely across it for a distance of 10 miles, narrowing it up to a breadth of about one-half mile. North of this point, opposite Mount Hor, the valley widens out to 13 miles and then gradually narrows to 6 miles at the south end of the Dead Sea. At Ain Abu Werideh, 29 miles north of the watershed, the valley is at the sea-level - 1,292 feet above that of the Dead Sea. North of the watershed, the main line of drainage is the Wady el-Jeib, which everywhere keeps pretty close to the west side of the valley. At Ain Abu Werideh it is joined by numerous wadies descending from the Edomite mountains on the east, which altogether water an oasis of considerable extent, covered with a thicket of young palms, tamarisks, willows and reeds. Twenty-four miles farther north the Arabah breaks down suddenly into the valley of the Dead Sea, or the Gh?r, as it is technically called. Lord Kitchener's report is here so vivid as to be worthy of literal reproduction. ?The descent to the Gh?r was down a sandy slope of 300 feet, and the change of climate was most marked, from the sandy desert to masses of tangled vegetation with streams of water running in all directions, birds fluttering from every tree, the whole country alive with life; nowhere have I seen so great and sudden a contrast? (Mount Seir, 214). The descent here described was on the eastern side of the semicircular line of cliffs formed of sand, gravel, and marl which enclose the Gh?r at the south end, and which are probably what are referred to in Jos_153 as the ?ascent of Akrabbim.? The ordinary route, however, leading to the plain of the Arabah from the Dead Sea is up the trough worn by the Wady el-Jeib along the west side of the valley. But this route would be impracticable during the rainy season after the cloudbursts which occasionally visit this region, when torrents of water pour down it, sufficient to roll boulders of considerable size and to transport an immense amount of coarse sediment.
South of the Dead Sea a muddy plain, known as the Sebkah, extends 6 miles, filling about one-half of the width of the Gh?r. During most of the year the mud over this area is so thin and deep that it is impossible to cross it near its northern end. This whole area between the ?ascent of Akrabbim? and the Dead Sea has evidently been greatly transformed by the sedimentary deposits which have been brought in by the numerous tributary wadies during the last 4,000 years, the coarser material having encroached upon it from either side, and the fine material having been deposited over the middle portion, furnishing the clay which is so embarrassing to travelers. (For further considerations upon this point see DEAD SEA; CITIES OF THE PLAIN.)

Geology of the Region
The Arabah in its whole extent occupies a portion of the great geological fault or crevasse in the earth's crust which extends from Antioch near the mouth of the Orontes southward between the Lebanon and the Anti-Lebanon Mountains to the valley of the Jordan and the Dead Sea, and onward to the Gulf of Akabah, whence it can be traced with considerable probability through the Red Sea and the interior lakes of Africa. The most remarkable portion of this phenomenal crevasse is that which extends from the Waters of Merom to the springs of Ain Abu Werideh; for through this entire distance the Arabah is below sea-level, the depression at the Dead Sea being approximately 1,292 feet. See DEAD SEA. Throughout the entire distance from the Waters of Merom to the watershed, 45 miles from Akabah, the western side of the Arabah is bordered by strata of Cretaceous (chalk) limestone rising pretty continuously to a height of from 2,000 to 3,000 feet above sea-level, no older rocks appearing upon that side. But upon the eastern side older sandstones (Nubian and lower Carboniferous) and granitic rocks border the plain, supporting, however, at a height of 2,000 or 3,000 feet Cretaceous limestones corresponding to those which descend to the level of the gorge on the western side. Throughout this entire distance, therefore, the strata have either slipped down upon the western side or risen upon the eastern side, or there has been a movement in both directions. The origin of this crevasse dates from the latter part of the Cretaceous or the early part of the Tertiary period.
But in post-Tertiary times an expanded lake filled the region, extending from the Waters of Merom to Ain Abu Werideh, a distance of about 200 miles, rising to an elevation of about 1,400 feet above the present level of the Dead Sea, but not sufficiently high to secure connection with the ocean either through the Arabah proper or across the valley of Esdraelon. This body of water was, on the average, 30 miles wide and over the northern part of the Dead Sea had an extreme depth of 2,700 feet. The most distinct evidence of the existence of this enlargement of the lake is to be found at Ain Abu Werideh, where Hull reports ?banks of horizontally stratified materials ... sometimes of coarse material, such as gravel; at other times consisting of fine sand, loam, or white marl, with very even stratification, and containing blanched semi-fossil shells of at least two kinds of univalves, which Professor Haddon has determined to be Melania tuberculata M?ll, and Melanopsis Saulcyi, Bourg? (Mount Seir, 99, 100). These are shells which are now found, according to Tristram, in great numbers in semi-fossil condition in the marl deposits of the Dead Sea, and both of these genera are found in the fluvio-marine beds formed in the brackish or salt water of the Isle of Wight. The existence of the shells indicates the extent to which the saline waters of the Dead Sea were diluted at that time. It should be added, however, that species somewhat similar still exist around the borders of the Dead Sea in lagoons where fresh water is mingled in large quantities with that of the Dead Sea. This is especially true in eddies near the mouth of the Jordan. (See Merrill, East of the Jordan.) Huntington in 1909 confirms the fact that these high-level shore lines are found on both sides of the Dead Sea, though for some reason the have not been traced farther north.
At lower levels, especially at that which is 650 feet above the Dead Sea, there is, however, a very persistent terrace of gravel, sand and clay marking a shore line all the way from the south end of the Dead Sea to Lake Galilee. This can be seen running up into all the wadies on either side, being very prominent opposite their mouths, but much eroded since its deposition. On the shores of the lake between the wadies the line is marked by a slight accumulation of coarse material. Below the 650-foot line there are several other minor strands marking periods when the subsiding waters were for a short time stationary.
This period of enlargement of the waters in the Arabah is now, with abundant reason, correlated with the Glacial epoch whose influence was so generally distributed over the northern hemisphere in early post-Tertiary times. There were, however, no living glaciers within the limits of the Arabah Valley - Mount Hermon not being sufficiently large to support any extensive ice-sheet. The nearest glacier of any extent was on the west side of the Lebanon Mountains, 40 to 50 miles north of Beir?t, where according to my own observations one descended from the summit of the mountains (10,000 feet high) 12 miles down the valley of the Kadesha River to a level 5,500 feet above the sea, where it built up an immense terminal moraine several miles across the valley, and 5 miles up it from its front, upon which is now growing the celebrated grove of the Cedars of Lebanon. (See Records of the Past, Am. series, V, 195-204.) The existence of the moraine, however, had been noted by Sir Joseph Hooker forty years before. (See Nat. Hist. Rev., January, 1862.)
But while there were no glaciers in the Arabah Valley itself, there, as elsewhere, semi-glacial conditions extended beyond the glacial limits a considerable distance into the lower latitudes, securing the increased precipitation and the diminished evaporation which would account for the enlargement of the bodies of water occupying enclosed basins within reach of these influences. The basin of Great Salt Lake in Utah presents conditions almost precisely like those of the Arabah, as do the Caspian and Aral seas, and lakes Urumiah, Van, and various others in central Asia. During the Glacial epoch the water level of Great Salt Lake rose more than 1,000 feet higher than now and covered ten times its present area. At the same time the Aral Sea discharged into the Caspian Sea through an outlet as large as Niagara. When the conditions of the Glacial epoch passed away the evaporation again prevailed, until the water areas of these enclosed basins were reduced to the existing dimensions and the present equilibrium was established between the precipitation and the evaporation.
While it is susceptible of proof that the close of this epoch was geologically recent, probably not more than 10,000 years ago (see Wright, Ice Age in North America, 5th edition, chapter xx),the present conditions had become established approximately long before the time of Abraham and the development of civilization in Babylonia and Egypt.
East of the Arabah between the Dead Sea and Akabah numerous mountain peaks rise to the height of more than 4,000 feet above tide level, the highest being Mount Hor, though back of it there is a limestone range reaching 5,000 feet. This mountainous region contains numerous fertile areas and furnishes through its numerous wadies a considerable amount of water to favor vegetation. The limestone floor of the Arabah south of the Dead Sea is deeply covered with sand and gravel, washed in from the granitic areas from the east. This greatly favors the accumulation of sediment at the mouths of the wadies emptying into the south end of the Gh?r.
History
At present the Egyptian government maintains a fort and harbor at Akabah, but its authority does not extend into the interior. The Arabah has, however, from time immemorial furnished a caravan route between northern Arabia and the Sinaitic Peninsula. It was this which supported the great emporium of Petra. The Israelites traversed its southern portion both on their way from Horeb to Kadesh-barnea and on their return, when the king of Edom refused passage through his land (Num_2021; Deu_23). This opposition compelled them to turn up the forbidding Wady el-Ithem, which opens into the Arabah a few miles north of Akabah and leads to the Pilgrim route between Damascus and Mecca. The terrors of this passage are referred to in Num_214, where it is said ?the soul of the people was much discouraged because of the way.? Around Akabah itself there are still groves of palms, the existence of which, at the time of the Exodus, is indicated by the name Elath (Deu_2, ?a grove of trees.?
Literature
Burchkhardt, Travels in Syria and the Holy Land, 1822; De Laborde, Voyage en Orient, 1828; Hull, Mount Seir, Sinai, and Western Palestine, 1889; ?The Physical Geol. and Geog. of Arabia Petrea,? etc., in PEF, 1886; Lartet, Voyage d'exploration de la Mer Morte, t. 3me, 1880; Robinson, BR, 1855; Stanley, Sinai and Pal5, 1860; Blankenkorn, ?Entstehung u. Gesch. des Todten Meeres,? in ZDPV, 1896; Ritter, ?Comp. Geog. of Palestine and the Sinaitic Peninsula,? 1866, translation by Wm. L. Gage; Huntington, Palestine and Its Transformation, 1911.
---------------------------> on to the next post

unknownuser

Part 3

Also From International Standard Bible Encyclopedia

Arabia
a-ra?bi-a ( , arabh, , Arabia)
I. Name and Situation

Name
Situation and Configuration
II. Physical Features
The Desert
Climate
Mountains
Rivers
Oases and Wells
III. Political Divisions
Ancient Divisions
Modern Divisions
Political Situation
Chief Towns
IV. Flora and Fauna
Flora
Fauna
V. Inhabitants
Classification
Extinct Tribes
South Arabian Tribes
Migration of Tribes
North Arabian Tribes
Other Tribes
Foreign Elements
VI. Religion
Monotheism
The Ka'bah, Pilgrimages and Fairs
Judaism
Christianity
Sabianism
Seekers after Truth Islam
Literature
I. Name and Situation
Name
The Hebrew word arabh always denotes, strictly speaking, not the country, but the people of Arabia taken collectively, and especially the nomadic Arabs. The name of the country does not occur in the Old Testament, but in the New Testament it is used to denote the Syrian desert or the peninsula of Sinai.
Situation and Configuration
Surrounded as it is on three sides by the sea - by the Indian Ocean on the south, and its two branches, the Red Sea on the west and the Persian Gulf on the east - and on the fourth side by the desert of Syria, the country of Arabia is to all intents and purposes an island; and it is named by its inhabitants and by those who speak their language ?the Island of the Arabs.? In configuration the country is roughly of the form of a parallelogram, about 1,000 miles in length by 500 or 600 miles broad. This parallelogram is not of uniform altitude, but the generally even surface is tilted to one corner in such a way that the most southerly point contains mountains rising to 10,000 feet in height, whilst the Northeast corner is almost on a level with the sea. The altitudes of the intervening portions are in proportion to their situation with respect to these extremes. Thus the mountains of the Southeast corner have an altitude of from 5,000 to 6,000 feet, those of the Northwest of 4,000 or 5,000, whereas those which are situated near the middle of the West coast rise to 8,000 feet, and the plateau which forms the northern half of the interior of the peninsula is between 3,000 and 4,000 feet above sea-level. In consequence of this configuration the main watershed of the country runs parallel to the West coast at a distance of between 50 and 100 miles from the sea, with a subsidiary watershed running along the south; and the principal outlets for the drainage run in a Northeast direction. The whole of Arabia stretches from about 13 degrees to about 36 degrees north of the equator, and it lies between 33 degrees and 60 degrees east of Greenwich. Its area is about eight times that of the British Isles, or nearly 1,000,000 square miles.
II. Physical Features
The Desert
Although Arabia is considered by geographers as part of the continent of Asia, it belongs in almost every respect to Africa. The great bulk of the country is desert, of fine sand in the southern part, but consisting of coarse sand (the nefud), gravel and flints in the northern. It is in fact an offshoot from the great African Sahara. Of the southern half little is known, and it has never been crossed by the foot of European. The northern has been traversed in many directions; it has numerous caravan routes, and some important towns are situated in the heart of it. Arabian fancy has peopled the desert with strange creatures not of human kind (compare Isa_1321; Isa_3414), and fancy has been justified by the common phenomena of the mirage and the Fata Morgana (Isa_357; Isa_4910). To the keen sight of the nomad the glowing desert heat is visible as a fine gossamer (Isa_184). Perhaps this is the meaning of sharabh in Isa_357; Isa_4910 also. It is quite certain, however, that the whole of Arabia and especially the northern borders in the neighborhood of the Sinai peninsula and eastward to the south of Palestine and the country of Edom, were at one time very much better watered than they are at the present day. For centuries a constant process of desiccation has been going on. Indeed, persons now living can remember the existence of wells one or two generations ago, where now there are none. It follows that this district must formerly have supported a very much larger population that it does at present.
Climate
It will be obvious that the climate of Arabia must vary greatly in its different parts, the temperature and rainfall depending not so much upon latitude as upon latitude, so that within a few miles the greatest extremes co-exist. In the southern angle where the mountains are highest there are two rainy seasons, one in spring the other in autumn, so that this province well deserves its Grecian name of Arabia Felix. In the higher reaches of this province, for example, at its capital San'a, snow falls in December; while on the coast of the Red Sea at Loheia, scarcely 100 miles distant, thermometer rarely falls below 80 degrees. In the Red Sea 93 degrees is a common reading in the shade in summer, while the heat of the Persian Gulf, owing to its steep shores and great evaporation, is hardly endurable by a European. In the Northwest province, in which are situated the two sacred cities of Mecca and Medina, the rainfall is unreliable and takes the form of heavy thunder showers which occasion frequent floods in the former town, and are, owing to the arborial denudation of the country, of little use for the purpose of agriculture or irrigation. These winter rains may commence as early as September, and by December at latest the new pasture will have covered the ground. Hence the true spring in northern Arabia, or in Syria, falls in our autumn, but there is not the distinction of former and latter rain (compare Hos_63) which obtains in Palestine. The climate of the northern central plateau is described by Palgrave as one of the most salubrious in the world.
Mountains
As has been indicated above, the backbone of the peninsula is the mountain range which runs down its western side. In its northern parts this is said to be an extension of the limestone ranges of the Lebanon and Anti-Libanus. In its midmost reaches it attains an elevation of between 8,000 and 9,000 feet, and at its southern extremity it spreads out into the plateau of Arabia Felix, where its highest peaks have an altitude of as much as 11,000 feet. In the Southeast corner of the peninsula the range of Jebel Akhdar runs parallel to that on the West, and is connected with it along the South coast by a range of less elevation. In the interior the northern plateau is intersected by numerous irregular mountain ranges of moderate length, of which the most frequently mentioned are Jebel Aja and Jebel Selma, which face one another in the Shammar country.
Rivers
The course of the rivers is determined by the direction of the mountain ranges. As has been said the drainage is mainly from West to East, but the fact is that Arabia is a land almost without rivers. The only quarter in which perennial streams are found is Arabia Felix, and to some extent they occur along the South coast. The rest of the peninsula is destitute of rivers and lakes. The scour (seyl) from the winter thunder showers cuts out for itself a torrent bed (wadi&#772, which, however, may be filled only once or twice in a generation, and even so dries up as soon as the rain ceases. The most important of these wadis is the West Sirhan, which runs from the Hauran in a Southeast direction to the Jauf (see DUMAH), the West el-Kora to the North of Medina, the West el-Hamth between Medina and Mecca, and the West Duweisir to the South of Mecca. Larger than any of these however is the West er-Rumma, which extends from the neighborhood of Medina to the head of the Persian Gulf. It has never been explored, and is filled with water only at long intervals.
Oases and Wells
In these circumstances the Arabs have to seek their water supply elsewhere than in their rivers. In many places the surface of the country sinks into a depression down to the level of permanent water, thus forming an oasis, which word is probably none other than the Arabic wadi. The best known of these occur at Kheibar and Teima (see TEMA) to the North of Medina, and also at Tabuk to the Northwest. The West Duweisir is itself practically an oasis of a length of three days' journey. In addition to these natural depressions there are also dotted over all the inhabited parts of Arabia and along the caravan routes numerous wells, these routes following naturally the course of the wadis. These wells are plentiful in the West Sirhan, and a number were sunk by command of Zubeida the wife of Harun al-Rashid, along the Pilgrim way from Persia to Mecca; but the most famous of all is the well of Zemzem in the Holy City itself. It is said that the water in it flows, so that it is probably one of those subterranean rivers which are not uncommon in Arabia. Its water, however, is heavy and brackish and causes indigestion, and the sweetest water obtainable in Mecca for drinking purposes was originally brought by Zubeida from a source some 15 miles distant. The purest water of all is that which collects after rain in the hollows of the numerous outcrops of lava which occur at frequent intervals and in great masses along the western mountain ranges. A spot where lava predominates is called a harrah (from the Arabic verb ?to be hot?), and several of these volcanic regions still show signs of activity.
III. Political Divisions
Ancient Divisions
The peninsula of Arabia was divided by the ancient geographers into three parts Arabia Petrea, Arabia Deserta and Arabia Felix. The first of these names, which is found in Ptolemy, means, not Arabia the Rocky, but that part of Arabia in which is situated the city of Petra (see SELA), and it also includes the peninsula of Sinai. It is identical with the desert of the Wanderings. Arabia Deserta is a translation from the Greek Arabia eremos of Strabo (circa 24 ad). It denotes the extreme north of the continent of Arabia which is thrust in like a wedge between the fertile lands which drain into the Euphrates on the East and into the Jordan valley on the West. It is thus equivalent to the Syrian Desert. The third term, Arabia Felix, is also a translation from the Greek - Arabia eudaimon - which is again a translation, or rather a mistranslation of the Arabic El-Yemen. This last name denotes the country to the right hand, i.e. the S, just as the Arabic Es-Shem (Syria) means the country to the left hand, or to the North El-Yemen, however, was interpreted as equivalent to El-Eyman, the Fortunate or Happy, a name which the district truly deserves.
Modern Divisions
Since before the time of Mohammed (6th century) Arabia has been divided into seven or eight tribal or political states, the boundaries of which are for the most part clearly defined by intervening deserts or uninhabited tracts. The most important of these from a religious point of view is the Hijaz, which may be described as the northern half of the western coast, stretching from the Red Sea to a distance of between 100 and 200 miles inland. The whole of the coast line, indeed, where the land is low lying is called the Tihama. This may, however, be considered as belonging to the adjacent high land beneath which it lies. Hijaz means ?Barrier,? and the district is so called because it consists mainly of the mountain ranges which separate the great northern central plateau from the Tihama. This last name is connected with a root meaning ?to be unwholesome.? Whether the district gave its origin to the verb, or the verb gave its denomination to the district, the name is equally appropriate. The chief importance of the Hijaz arises from the fact that in it are situated the two holy cities of Mecca and Medina - the cradle and the grave of the Prophet. It is thus the religious center of the Islamic world. The Yemen forms the southern corner of the peninsula. It is identical with Arabia Felix, and its physical characteristics have been described above. The Hijaz often fell to the sovereign of Egypt, but for the last four centuries it has, like Egypt, been subject to the Turk. It is only within the last fifty years, on the other hand, that the sultan has attempted to enforce his sovereign rights in the Yemen. The southern coast of Arabia is generally designated as Hadramaut, although in strictness that appellation is properly applicable to a section of it only. The eastern corner of Arabia is taken up by Oman, a state which has generally claimed and secured a position of independence. Both it and the southern states are now under the protection of the Indian government. The country adjacent to Oman toward the North formed the province of El-Bahrein (?the Two Seas?), but this name is now restricted to a large island at the western end of it and some smaller islands famous for their pearl fishery. The remaining province of El-Hasa is occupied by practically independent tribes. From many points of view the most interesting province of Arabia is the great northern central plateau called Nejd, that is, ?high land.? From its situation it is least susceptible to foreign influence. It contains some fairly large towns, but the bulk of its population live, as their fathers have done from time immemorial, the life of the Bedawi. Two small provinces remain to be noticed. Between the Yemen and the Hijaz lies the district of Asir, which largely resembles the first-named province in its physical features. To the East of Nejd lies the district of Yemama, which used to be the territory of an important tribe.
Political Situation
On the whole the political situation in Arabia today bears a considerable resemblance to that which obtained immediately before the mission of Mohammad. At that time (about 600 ad) the Northwest parts of the peninsula were more or less subject to the Byzantine emperor, while the whole East and South coasts were under the sway of Persia. Today the West coast of Arabia is again subject to Constantinople, and the East and South coasts are under the protection of an eastern power - in this case the government of India.
Chief Towns
The principal towns of Arabia and the other centers of population owe their existence to the natural features of the country and have probably remained the same in all ages, just as those of Palestine have, and even their population does not seem to have altered much. Thus Mecca owes its existence to the presence of the famous well Zemzem; Teima, Kheibar and Tabuk to their oases; Mascat, the capital of Oman, to its natural harbor; and so on. An exception is the ancient town of Saba (see SHEBA) or Marib, which probably sprang up as the result of the building in prehistoric times of a gigantic dam for the purposes of irrigation. When the dam burst in the 2nd or 3rd Christian century, the population dispersed. Owing to the absence of a census it is not possible to make accurate statements regarding the population of an eastern town, and estimates by European travelers always vary greatly. Speaking generally, the cities of Arabia of the first magnitude appear to have some 35,000 inhabitants, though Mascat is said to have as many as 60,000.
IV. Flora and Fauna
Flora
The peninsula of Arabia belongs, as has been said, in its physical features to Africa, and its flora and fauna are those of that continent. Of all the products of the soil by far the most important is the date palm. It flourishes in every oasis. In the Wadi Duweisir alone it is said one may ride straight on for three days without leaving the shelter of the palm groves. The dates, which are the staff of life of the Arab, differ in quality in each locality, each district producing a variety of its own. In the Yemen, with its varied altitudes, almost every kind of fruit and vegetable known in temperate latitudes is cultivated on the terraced mountain sides. Vines are grown, as Ibn Khaldun remarks, for the sake of the berry, not for the purposes of wine making. The vine is common to Arabia and Palestine, whereas the date palm has almost gone out of cultivation in the latter country. On the other land the olive, which is so important in the northern country is almost unknown in the southern. The olive is constantly referred to in the Bible (Jdg_98 and often), the date never. From the South coast especially are exported frankincense, balsam, myrrh and other aromatic plants; and cotton is cultivated in the province of Oman. Cereals flourish in the Yemen and tobacco is grown wherever possible in Arabia The coffee of the Yemen is famous; it is exported to Constantinople and named from the port of export Mokha coffee; but the bulk of it is consumed within Arabia itself. Coffee and tobacco are the only two articles of consumption which are used in Arabia today, and which have not been used from time immemorial. Coffee was probably introduced into Arabia from Gallaland on the African mainland two or three centuries ago. The Arabs are most inveterate coffee drinkers. Tobacco was probably first brought from English ships at Constantinople in the reign of James I. It is cultivated in every oasis, unless in the interior in Nejd, where its use is discouraged on religious grounds. There is only one other point in regard to which the Arabs of today differ from the Arabs of Mohammed's time - the use of gunpowder. Except in respect of the three commodities just mentioned, everyday life in the desert today goes on exactly as it did 1,600 years ago. Forest trees are extremely rare in Arabia, but a species of tamarisk called ghada which grows in the northern nefud is proverbial for the quality of charcoal it affords and is a favorite food of the camel. An acacia called katad is likewise a by-word on account of its long spines. The wood is used for making camels' saddles; it grows in the Tihama. As in Palestine and in most countries which have been inhabited for many thousands of years, the larger trees have long been cut down for fuel or for building purposes.
Fauna
Among beasts of prey panthers, wolves, hyenas, jackals and (it is said) even lions are found in Arabia Many of the tribes are named after these and other animals. The wild ox or oryx (see UNICORN) is rarely seen, but gazelles are plentiful. Apes abound in the Yemen, as they do all along the North of Africa, and are kept as pets (compare 1Ki_1022). By far the most important domestic animal is the camel. Without it many parts of the country would be uninhabited. It is commonly supposed that the best breed of horses comes from Nejd, but this appears to be an error. In Nejd the camel is the indispensable beast of burden and mount; horses are comparatively useless there. The best Arabian horses are reared in Mesopotamia. Studs are, indeed, kept by the emirs of Nejd, but the horses are small and of little use. The pedigrees of the best horses go back, according to tradition, to the time of Solomon (1Ki_102. Dogs are trained to hunt the wild ox, to tend sheep and to watch the camp. All domestic animals - dogs, horses, mules, asses - receive names as with us. The ostrich is rarely met with, but is found as far north as the Jauf; it no doubt found its way into Arabia from Africa. A common bird is the kata or sand grouse. It is noted for going straight to its watering place. ?Better guided than a kata? is a common proverb. Hawks and falcons are found, and falconry among the Arabs was a favorite sport. In Arabia the locust, so far from being a scourge wherever it appears, is a valuable article of food. It is eaten not only by human beings (Mat_34), but also by dogs, horses and even beasts of prey. As might be expected in a rocky and sun-scorched land like Arabia, scorpions and various sorts of serpents abound. The chameleon (Lev_1130) is common here. It is used as a simile for fickle people and those who do not fulfill their promises. It may be regarded as a substitute for thermometer, as on very hot days it ascends trees or any high places. Another sign of extreme heat is that the vipers writhe on the ground.
The Persian Gulf, especially the Bahrein archipelago, is famous for its pearls, while the Red Sea is noted for its coral reefs, which have caused many a shipwreck. It is believed that in the interior of Hadramaut there are many mineral deposits including gold.
V. Inhabitants
Classification
The inhabitants of Arabia are divided into three classes. There are in the first place a number of tribes which became extinct, and which are not connected genealogically with those which survived. The latter are divided into two great stems, the south Arabian and indigenous branch descended from Kahtan, and the north Arabian or immigrant tribes descended from Ishmael, the son of Abraham. There is naturally a good deal of inconsistency in the various traditions of the origins of these tribes and their subsequent history.
Extinct Tribes
Of the extinct tribes the most familiar name is that of Amlak or Amlik (Amalek). By the Arabian genealogists he is variously described as a grandson of Shem and as a son of Ham. In Gen_3612 he is a son of Esau's son, Eliphaz, by Timna. They are said to be first met with in Chaldea, from which they were expelled on the rise of the Assyrian power under Nimrod. They migrated into Ar, occupying in turn the Bahrein, Oman, the Yemen, and finally the Hijaz, where they are said to have been the first settlers at Yathrib (Medina) and also to have occupied land round Mecca and Kheibar. In the time of Abraham they were expelled from Mecca on the arrival of two new tribes from the South, those of Jurhum and Katura (Gen_251). Later, it is said, David, during the rebellion of Absalom, took up his quarters in Kheibar and ruled over the surrounding districts. According to another tradition Moses sent an expedition against the Amalekites in the Hijaz, on which occasion the Israelites, disobeying his orders, spared their king Arkam (compare Rekem, Num_318; Jos_1321) - a reminiscence of the incident in the life of Saul (1 Sam 15). In any case the Amalekites were supplanted in the northern Hijaz by Jewish tribes, who continued there until the time of Mohammad. The Amalekites migrated into Egypt and southern Palestine. The Pharaohs of the time of Abraham, Joseph and Moses are represented to have been Amalekites. Finally, broken up by Josh, they fled into northern Africa, where they are said to have grown into the Berber races. The rest of the tribes which became extinct like the Amalekites are of less interest for the present purpose, being unconnected with the Bible narrative. They are mentioned in the Koran, in which book their destruction is attributed to their idolatrous proclivities and to their rejection of the monotheistic prophets. The best known and most important are Ad and Thamud.Ad is variously named the son of Amalek and the son of Uz (Gen_1023). The tribe dwelt in the deserts behind the Yemen. They became polytheists; the prophet Hud was sent to them; they rejected him, and were destroyed by a hurricane. The remnant grew into a new tribe, whose chief, Lokman, built the great dam at Marib. In the end they were conquered by a tribe of Kahtan. Thamud was closely related to Ad, being a son of Aram the father of Uz. They were driven out of the Yemen and settled in the northern Hijaz; they rejected their prophet Salih and were destroyed by an earthquake accompanied by a loud noise. The rock-cut sepulchral monuments of Medain Salih in the Wadi el-Kora are still pointed out as their dwellings. They were, therefore, considered to have been troglodites like the Horites of the Bible. A second pair were the brother tribes of Tasm and Jadis, grandsons of Aram. Tasm oppressing Jadis, the latter rose and almost exterminated the former, only to be in turn destroyed by a king of the Yemen. Their home was Yemama.
South Arabian Tribes
The southern Arabs claim to be descended from an ancestor called Kahtan son of 'Abir, son of Shalikh, son of Arfakhshad, son of Shem, son of Noah. Kahtan is undoubtedly the Biblical Joktan (Gen_1026), and the names of his descendants reappear as Arabic place names. Indeed the tenth chapter of Gen throws much light on the earliest history of Arabia and the movements of the tribes. Thus the fact that Sheba and Dedan appear as grandsons of Cush, that is, as Abyssinian tribes descended from Ham, in Gen_107 and again as descendants of Keturah and Abraham in Gen_253 points to the fact that parts of these tribes migrated from the one country to the other. Havilah in Gen_107 may similarly be connected with Havilah in Gen_1029, the intercourse between Southwest Arabia and the opposite coast of Africa being always very close. Among the sons of Joktan are mentioned Almodad, Hazarmaveth, Uzal (Izal), Sheba, Ophir, Havilah. In Almodad we have probably the Arabic El-Mudad, a name which occurs among the descendants of Jurhum, son of Yaktan (Joktan). Hazarmaveth is obviously Hadramaut. Uzal is the ancient name of San'a, the capital of the Yemen. Sheba is the Arabic Saba or Marib. Ophir and Havilah were probably in South or East Arabia. In Gen_1030 it is said that the camping grounds of these tribes stretched from Mesha as you go toward Sephar, the mountain of the East, that is, probably from the North of the Persian Gulf to the center of South Arabia, Sephar being Zafar, the capital of the South Arab kingdom near to the present Mirbat.
Migration of Tribes
Many of the most illustrious tribes are descended from Kahtan, and some of them still survive. A constant stream of migration went on toward the North. Thus the tribe of Jurhum left the Yemen on account of drought and settled in the Hijaz and the Tihama, from which they drove out the Amalekites, and were in turn driven out by Koda'a, another Kahtanite tribe. After that they disappear from history and are reckoned among the extinct tribes. Koda'a was a descendant of Himyar. The Himyarites founded, about the 1st century bc, a kingdom which lasted for five centuries. The king bore the title of Tubba', and the capital was successively Marib (Saba), Zafar and San'a. One of their monarchs was the queen Bilkis whom the Arabian historians identify with the queen of Sheba who visited Solomon, though she must have lived much later. The story of the meeting is given in the Koran, chapter 38. A chief occasion on which many of the tribes left the district Northeast of the Yemen was the bursting of the great dam, built by Lokman at Marib, about the 2nd century ad. A section of these grew into the Arabian kingdom of Ghassan, whose capital was Damascus and many of whose kings bore the name Al-Harith (Aretas, 2Co_1132). This kingdom lasted till the time of Mohammad (7th century) and was in alliance with the Roman and Greek empires. On the opposite side of the Syrian desert the Lakhmid kingdom of Al-Hira on the Euphrates (also of Kahtanite origin) was allied to Persia. The two Arabian ?buffer-states? were almost constantly at war with one another.
North Arabian Tribes
Among the Arabs Ishmael holds the place occupied by Isaac in the Hebrew tradition. It was to the valley, afterward the site of the town of Mecca, that Abraham conducted Hagar and her son, and that Ishmael grew up and became the father of a great nation. The locality is full of spots connected by tradition with his life history, the ground where Hagar searched for water, the well Zemzem of which Gabriel showed her the place, the mount Thabir where Abraham would have sacrificed his son (Ishmael), and the graves of Hagar and Ishmael. The Jurhum, among whom Ishmael grew up, gave him seven goats these were the capital with which he began life. He married a woman of Jurhum. He had twelve sons (Gen_2516) of whom Kaidar and Nabat are the best known, perhaps the Cedrei and Nabataei of Pliny; other sons were Dumah and Tema (which see). The subsequent history of the Ishmaelites is lost for several generations until we come to Adnan, who is said to have been defeated by Nebuchadnezzar, when the latter invaded Arabia. All the Ishmaelite tribes are descended from Adnan. They are the north Arabian tribes, as opposed to the Kahtanite or south Arabian. One of them, Koreish, under their chief, Kosay, became master of Mecca, driving out Koda'a. Later, as the tribe of the Prophet, they became the rulers of Arabia and the aristocracy of the Muslim empire; and the descendants of Mohammad remain to this day the only hierarchy known to Islam.
Other Tribes
There are one or two other branches which are not included in the above classification such are the Nabateans (see NEBAIOTH), and the descendants of Esau and Keturah. The Nabateans are not generally reckoned among the Arabian tribes. They were an Aramean stock, the indigenous inhabitants of Mesopotamia, and spoke not Arabic but Aramaic. They founded a kingdom in Arabia of which the capital was Petra (see SELA). This was the most famous of their colonies, and it endured, at first in alliance with the Romans and later in subjection to them, for 500 years - from the 2nd century bc to the 3rd century ad. Petra was an important trading emporium, but, when the trade left the overland routes and was carried by way of the Red Sea, it quickly fell into poverty and oblivion. The descendants of Esau are named in Gen_361; they were allied to the Hittites and Ishmaelites. Among the tribes descended from Keturah are Jokshan and Midian, Sheba and Dedan (Gen_252).
Foreign Elements
In Arabia there was and still, in spite of religious disabilities, is a large Jewish population. Before the age of Mohammad they lived chiefly in the Northwest, the two best known tribes - An-Nadir and Koreiza - occupying Yathrib (Medina). After the rise of Islam they were expelled from Arabia; but at the present time there are probably some 60,000 Jews in the Yemen alone. There has always been a close connection between the South and West of Arabia and the opposite African coast. Especially in the 6th century there was a large influx of Abyssinians into the Yemen, as there still is into the western districts. A like intermixture of population went on between Zanzibar and Oman.
VI. Religion
Monotheism
The religion of the greater part of the Arabs before the time of Mohammad consisted of a vague deism combined with a primitive form of stone-worship. This is chiefly true of the Ishmaelite tribes descended from Modan, a great-grandson of Adnan, and among them it is especially true of Koreish. The origin of this stone worship may have been that as each family was forced to hive off from the main stock and quit the sacred territory around Mecca, it carried with it a stone as a monument of the homeland. This stone soon became a fetich. It was worshipped by stroking it with the hand. Before setting out on a journey a man would perform this religious duty, and also immediately on his return, before even visiting his wife and family. The best known idols of the pagan Arabs, from the mention of them in the Koran, are Al-Lat, Al-Ozza and Al-Manat (Kor 53 19.20), worshipped by the Thakif at Ta?f, by the two tribes of Medina, the Aus and the Khazraj, and by Koreish, in a shrine near Mecca, respectively. Koreish had also a great idol named Hubal in the ?house of God? at Mecca, which contained other idols besides. The deity in each case was probably at first a large boulder of stone, then a portable image was made, apparently in human form. They were regarded as feminine and called the daughters of God. Indeed, Al-Lat is apparently merely the feminine of Allah (God). The deities mentioned in the Koran (7123), Yaghuth, Yauk and Nesr, were worshipped in the Yemen. It is certain, however, that the idolatry of the Arabs of ?the Ignorance? (Jahiliyah, ?roughness,? ?ignorance?; compare Act_1730) - so native writers name the ages before Mohammad (Koran 3 148, etc.) - has been greatly exaggerated by Mohammadan historians. It is remarkable that the words denoting an idol, sanam and wethen, are not Arabic roots, and the practice of idolatry seems also to have been an importation from without. Even the idolatrous Arabs believed in a supreme deity, whose daughters the idol deities were, and with whom they had powers of intercession. They therefore were rather images of saints than of gods. As Renan has said, the desert is monotheistic; it is too empty to give birth to a pantheon, as the fruitful plains of India could do. At the present day the desert Arabs are more strictly monotheistic than the Muslims themselves. Their religion consists in nothing save a vague belief in God.
The Ka'ba, Pilgrimages and Fairs
Though there were many houses of God in the country, the chief religious resort even before the time of Mohammad was Mecca. The House of God (see BETHEL) here was called the Ka'ba, which is the English word ?cube,? the building being so called from its shape. It was believed to have been built by Abraham and Ishmael. The honor of acting as guardians of the House was a subject of rivalry among the tribes. The office was held consecutively by the tribes of Jurhum, Koda'a and Koreish, and last by the grandfather and uncles of Mohammad. These, therefore, correspond to the tribe of Levi in Israel. It is said to have contained a large number of images, but it is remarkable that the nearer our authorities get to the time of Mohammad the smaller is the number of images mentioned. The chief of these, Hubal, is not named in the Koran. The worship took the form of circumambulation (tawaf), running or marching round the sanctuary (compare Psa_266). An annual visitation was and still is made by those living at a distance, and sacrifices are offered. This is the hajj or pilgrimage; the same name is used for the corresponding rite among the Hebrews (Exo_109 and often). These religious assemblies were combined with fairs, at which markets were held and a considerable trade carried on. Before the time of Mohammad the great annual fair was held at Okaz, a place still pointed out about three days' journey East of Mecca and one day West of Ta?f. Here were not only all kinds of commercial transactions carried on - auctions, sales, settling of accounts and payment of blood-wit, but an academy was held at which poets recited their odes, and received judgment upon their merits. These fairs were generally held in the sacred months, that is, the first, seventh, eleventh and twelfth months, in which fighting was forbidden. They had therefore a great civilizing and pacifying influence.
Judaism
Before the time of Mohammad Judaism prevailed extensively in Arabia, especially in the Hijaz. It began no doubt with the migration of families due to disturbed political conditions at home. The conquest of Palestine by Nebuchadnezzar, by the Seleucids, by the Romans under Pompey, Vespasian and finally Hadrian, drove many Jews to seek peace and safety in the deserts out of which their forefathers had come. Thither Paul also withdrew after his conversion (Gal_117). Two of these emigrant tribes, the Nadir and Koreiza, settled at Medina, first in independence, then as clients of the Aus and Khazraj. In the end they were harried and destroyed by Mohammad. The Jewish colony at Kheibar met the same fate. Several free Arab tribes also professed the Jewish faith, especially certain branches of Himyar and Kinda, both descendants of Kahtan, the former in southern, the latter in central Arabia. Judaism was introduced into the Yemen by one of the Tubbas, probably in the 3rd century ad, but it was not until the beginning of the 6th century that it made much headway. At that epoch the Tubba Dhu Nuwas became a fierce protagonist of this creed. He seems to have attacked the Aus and Khazraj to whom the Jews of Yathrib (Medina) were subject. He instituted against the Christians of Nejran, a territory lying to the Northeast of the Yemen, a persecution which brought upon him the vengeance of the Byzantine emperor and of the Negus of Abyssinia and involved his kingdom and dynasty in ruin.
Christianity
Judaism did not hold such a large place in Arabia as did Christianity. The apostle Bartholomew is said to have carried the gospel thither. One of the Jurhum kings who may have lived about the beginning of the 2nd century ad is named Abd el-Masih (?Christ's slave?). There is said to have been a representation of the Virgin Mary and her Son in the Ka'ba. The Christian emperor Constans (337-50) sent the Bishop Theophilus into South Arabia in order to obtain toleration for the Christians. The mission was successful. Churches were built at Zafar, at Aden, and on the shore of the Persian Gulf. The emperor's real object was doubtless political - to counteract the influence of Persia in these regions. Most of the Yemenite tribes were at this time pagan they worshipped the idols mentioned above (Koran 71 23). Some time after we find the Abyssinian sovereign describing himself in the inscriptions at Axum as king of the Himyarites. This supremacy would be favorable to the spread of Christianity. One of the chief seats, however, of the Christian religion, was at the above-mentioned Nejran, the territory of the tribe Harith ibn Ka'b, whom ecclesiastical writers seem to denote by Arethas son of Caleb. It was this tribe that Dhu Nuwas, Tubba of the Yemen, on his conversion to Judaism, attacked. He threw all the Christians who held by their faith into a trench of fire in which they were burned (Koran 85 4). News of this atrocity was either carried by those who escaped or sent by the Lakhmid, king of Al-Hira, to the emperor Justin I, who, in turn, either directly or through the patriarch of Alexandria, invoked the co?peration of the Axumite king. The result was that the Abyssinians invaded the Yemen and overthrew the Himyarite dynasty. Christianity then became the prevailing religion of South Arabia. The Abyssinians were in their turn, however, expelled by the Persians, under whom all religions - Christianity, Judaism and paganism - were tolerated, until they all disappeared before Islam. Several of the Lakhmid kings of Al-Hira, although they were from circumstances under the influence of the Persian Zoroastrianism, professed Christianity. Numan I who reigned at the end of the 4th and beginning of the 5th century, perhaps under the influence of Simon Stylites, retired from the world and became an ascetic. Mundhir II, in the middle of the 6th century, seems to have come temporarily under the influence of the Eutychian heresy. Numan V, one of his successors, was also converted to Christianity. But the kingdom in which Christianity flourished most was naturally that in closest contact with the Byzantine empire - the kingdom of the Ghassanids, although it seems not to have been until after the conversion of Constantine that this was the case. From his reign date the monasteries of which the ruins are still visible in the Ghassanid country. The powerful Ishmaelite tribe of Taghlib, whose settlements were in Mesopotamia was also converted to Christianity through similar influences, but not until the end of the 6th century. Some members of the Kahtanite Koda'a professed the same religion, as did the Kelb in the Jauf.
Sabianism
In the Koran a third creed is bracketed with those of the Jews and Christians as entitled to toleration - that of the Sabians. These are monotheists who also worshipped the stars or the angels. The name Sabian has no connection with Sabean which is derived from the name of the town of Saba. An account of their religion, taken from Abu'l Faraj (Bar Hebraeus), the Jacobite bishop, who wrote about the middle of the 13th century, will be found in Sale's Koran, Preliminary Discourse, section I. Sale, however, identified Sabianism with the primitive religion of the Arabs, which Mohammad sought to supplant. This is impossible, however, in view of the fact that Mohammad tolerated the one and proscribed the other. Since the publication of Chwolson's Ssabier und Ssabismus it has been recognized that under the term Sabians are included two very different groups of people. In the first place the devotees of the old Semitic idolatry which flourished at Harran assumed the name Sabian to enable them to claim the protection afforded by the Koran. It is the tenets of these Harranians of which Chwolson's work contains an exposition. The true Sabians, however, were a survival of primitive Christian Gnosticism; whence they were also called Mandeans. From their frequent ablutions they received their name derived from the Aramaic cebha, to ?baptize,? the 'ayin being softened to 'aleph, and connected with John the Baptist.
The Jews, Christians and Sabians are called in the Koran ?the people of the book,? that is, those to whom a revelation had been vouchsafed, and who were in consequence of this tolerated. In one passage of the Koran (22 17) a fourth religion is added to these - the Magian, or Zoroastrian, introduced from Persia.
Seekers After Truth Islam
Shortly before the appearance of Mohammad a number of thinking persons had become dissatisfied with the old Arabian religion of their ancestors, and yet had not joined the Christian or Jewish faith. They gave up the worship of idols, studied the various sacred books, and sought to find out the true way. They are considered in the Koran as having been of the true faith even before Mohammad had appeared. About a dozen are mentioned by the historians, of whom the most important are four - Waraka the cousin of Mohammad's wife Khadija; Othman who became a Christian; Obeidallah who became a Christian and then a Muslim; Zeid who traveled in pursuit of Truth, but did not attach himself to any one faith. The Hebrew prophets and those who accepted their doctrines are regarded as belonging to the same class. A person who is a monotheist, and who yet does not attach himself to any particular creed is called in the Koran a Hanif. This pure religion is called the religion of Abraham. Mohammad claimed to restore this primeval religion in Islam. By John of Damascus Mohammad was regarded as the founder of a Christian sect. It is probable that but for his appearance Christianity would have spread over the whole of Arabia.
Literature
Causinn de Perceval, Essai sur l'histoire des Arabes; Sprenger, Die alte Geographie Arabiens; Hamdani, ed., M?ller, Geographic der arabischen Halbinsel; Niebuhr, Travels through Arabia; Burckhardt, Travels in Arabia; Wellsted, Travels in Arabia; Burton, Personal Narrative of a Pilgrimage to El-Medinah and Meccah; Palgrave, Journey through Central and Eastern Arabia; Blunt, A Pilgrimage to Nejd; Hurgronje, Mecca; Doughty, Travels in Arabia Deserta; Harris, A Journey through the Yemen; Brunnow and Domazewski, Die Provincia Arabia; Musil, Arabia Deserta; Glaser, Skizze der Geschichte und Geographic Arabiens.
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